DRILLING FRAMEWORK

Description

BACKGROUND

A resource field may be an accumulation, pool or group of pools of one or more resources (e.g., oil, gas, oil and gas) in a subsurface environment. A resource field may include at least one reservoir. A reservoir may be shaped in a manner that may trap hydrocarbons and may be covered by an impermeable or sealing rock. A bore may be drilled into an environment where the bore may be utilized to form a well that may be utilized in producing hydrocarbons from a reservoir.

A rig may be a system of components that may be operated to form a bore in an environment, to transport equipment into and out of a bore in an environment, etc. As an example, a rig may include a system that may be used to drill a bore and to acquire information about an environment, about drilling, etc. A resource field may be an onshore field, an offshore field or an on-and offshore field. A rig may include components for performing operations onshore and/or offshore. A rig may be, for example, vessel-based, offshore platform-based, onshore, etc.

Field planning may occur over one or more phases, which may include an exploration phase that aims to identify and assess an environment (e.g., a prospect, a play, etc.), which may include drilling of one or more bores (e.g., one or more exploratory wells, etc.). Other phases may include appraisal, development and production phases.

In various phases, drilling operations and/or drilling equipment may be assessed using a simulator that may simulate interactions between a drill bit and rock. However, such a simulator may include limited features such that particular physical phenomena may not be amenable to simulation.

SUMMARY

A method may include executing a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; during the executing, accessing a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and outputting the simulation results. A system may include a processor; a memory accessible by the processor; and processor-executable instructions stored in the memory that are executable to instruct the system to: execute a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; during execution of the simulator, access a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and output the simulation results. One or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media may include computer-executable instructions executable to instruct a computer to: execute a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; during execution of the simulator, access a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and output the simulation results. Various other apparatuses, systems, methods, etc., are also disclosed.

This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts that are further described below in the detailed description. This summary is not intended to identify key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in limiting the scope of the claimed subject matter.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Features and advantages of the described implementations may be more readily understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 illustrates examples of equipment in a geologic environment;

FIG. 2 illustrates examples of equipment and examples of hole types;

FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a system;

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a drill bit;

FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a blade and examples of cutters;

FIG. 6 illustrates an example of a system and examples of plots;

FIG. 7 illustrates examples of cutter-rock interactions;

FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a method;

FIG. 9 illustrates an example of a system;

FIG. 10 illustrates an example of a framework;

FIG. 11 illustrates examples of frameworks;

FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a graphical user interface;

FIG. 13 illustrates examples of graphical user interfaces;

FIG. 14 illustrates examples of graphical user interfaces;

FIG. 15 illustrates an example of a graphical user interface;

FIG. 16 illustrates an example of a graphical user interface;

FIG. 17 illustrates an example of a graphical user interface and an example of a plot;

FIG. 18 illustrates examples of scenarios of representing cutter-rock interference;

FIG. 19 illustrates examples of scenarios;

FIG. 20 illustrates example results of example scenarios;

FIG. 21 illustrates example results of an example scenario with and without speed dependent cutting force taken into account;

FIG. 22 illustrates an example of a method and an example of a system; and

FIG. 23 illustrates an example of computing system.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description includes the best mode presently contemplated for practicing the described implementations. This description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but rather is made merely for the purpose of describing the general principles of the implementations. The scope of the described implementations should be ascertained with reference to the issued claims.

FIG. 1 shows an example of a system 100 that includes a workspace framework 110 that may provide for instantiation of, rendering of, interactions with, etc., a graphical user interface (GUI) 120. In the example of FIG. 1, the GUI 120 may include graphical controls for computational frameworks (e.g., applications, etc.) 121, projects 122, visualization features 123, one or more other features 124, data access 125, and data storage 126.

In the example of FIG. 1, the workspace framework 110 may be tailored to a particular geologic environment such as an example geologic environment 150. For example, the geologic environment 150 may include layers (e.g., stratification) that include a reservoir 151 and that may be intersected by a fault 153. As an example, the geologic environment 150 may be outfitted with a variety of sensors, detectors, actuators, etc. For example, equipment 152 may include communication circuitry to receive and to transmit information with respect to one or more networks 155. Such information may include information associated with downhole equipment 154, which may be equipment to acquire information, to assist with resource recovery, etc. Other equipment 156 may be located remote from a wellsite and include sensing, detecting, emitting or other circuitry. Such equipment may include storage and communication circuitry to store and to communicate data, instructions, etc. As an example, one or more satellites may be provided for purposes of communications, data acquisition, etc. For example, FIG. 1 shows a satellite in communication with the network 155 that may be configured for communications, noting that the satellite may additionally or alternatively include circuitry for imagery (e.g., spatial, spectral, temporal, radiometric, etc.).

FIG. 1 also shows the geologic environment 150 as optionally including equipment 157 and 158 associated with a well that includes a substantially horizontal portion that may intersect with one or more fractures 159. For example, consider a well in a shale formation that may include natural fractures, artificial fractures (e.g., hydraulic fractures) or a combination of natural and artificial fractures. As an example, a well may be drilled for a reservoir that is laterally extensive. In such an example, lateral variations in properties, stresses, etc. may exist where an assessment of such variations may assist with planning, operations, etc. to develop a laterally extensive reservoir (e.g., via fracturing, injecting, extracting, etc.). As an example, the equipment 157 and/or 158 may include components, a system, systems, etc. for fracturing, seismic sensing, analysis of seismic data, assessment of one or more fractures, etc.

In the example of FIG. 1, the GUI 120 shows some examples of computational frameworks, including the DRILLPLAN, DRILLOPS, PETREL, TECHLOG, PETROMOD, ECLIPSE, PIPESIM, and INTERSECT frameworks (SLB, Houston, Texas).

The DRILLPLAN framework provides for digital well construction planning and includes features for automation of repetitive tasks and validation workflows, enabling improved quality drilling programs (e.g., digital drilling plans, etc.) to be produced quickly with assured coherency.

The DRILLOPS framework may execute a digital drilling plan and ensures plan adherence, while delivering goal-based automation. The DRILLOPS framework may generate activity plans automatically individual operations, whether they are monitored and/or controlled on the rig or in town. Automation may utilize data analysis and learning systems to assist and optimize tasks, such as, for example, setting ROP to drilling a stand. A preset menu of automatable drilling tasks may be rendered, and, using data analysis and models, a plan may be executed in a manner to achieve a specified goal, where, for example, measurements may be utilized for calibration. The DRILLOPS framework provides flexibility to modify and replan activities dynamically, for example, based on a live appraisal of various factors (e.g., equipment, personnel, and supplies). Well construction activities (e.g., tripping, drilling, cementing, etc.) may be continually monitored and dynamically updated using feedback from operational activities. The DRILLOPS framework may provide for various levels of automation based on planning and/or re-planning (e.g., via the DRILLPLAN framework), feedback, etc.

The PETREL framework may be part of the DELFI environment for utilization in geosciences and geoengineering, for example, to analyze subsurface data from exploration to production of fluid from a reservoir. The DELFI cognitive exploration and production (E&P) environment (SLB, Houston, Texas), referred to herein as the DELFI environment or DELFI framework, is a secure, cognitive, cloud-based collaborative environment that integrates data and workflows with digital technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning.

The PETREL framework provides components that allow for optimization of various exploration, development and production operations. The PETREL framework includes seismic to simulation software components that may output information for use in increasing reservoir performance, for example, by improving asset team productivity. Through use of such a framework, various professionals (e.g., geophysicists, geologists, and reservoir engineers) may develop collaborative workflows and integrate operations to streamline processes (e.g., with respect to one or more geologic environments, etc.). Such a framework may be considered an application (e.g., executable using one or more devices) and may be considered a data-driven application (e.g., where data is input for purposes of modeling, simulating, etc.).

The TECHLOG framework may handle and process field and laboratory data for a variety of geologic environments (e.g., deepwater exploration, shale, etc.). The TECHLOG framework may structure wellbore data for analyses, planning, etc.

The PETROMOD framework provides petroleum systems modeling capabilities that may combine one or more of seismic, well, and geological information to model the evolution of a sedimentary basin. The PETROMOD framework may predict if, and how, a reservoir has been charged with hydrocarbons, including the source and timing of hydrocarbon generation, migration routes, quantities, and hydrocarbon type in the subsurface or at surface conditions.

The ECLIPSE framework provides a reservoir simulator (e.g., as a computational framework) with numerical solutions for fast and accurate prediction of dynamic behavior for various types of reservoirs and development schemes.

The INTERSECT framework provides a high-resolution reservoir simulator for simulation of detailed geological features and quantification of uncertainties, for example, by creating accurate production scenarios and, with the integration of precise models of the surface facilities and field operations, the INTERSECT framework may produce reliable results, which may be continuously updated by real-time data exchanges (e.g., from one or more types of data acquisition equipment in the field that may acquire data during one or more types of field operations, etc.). The INTERSECT framework may provide completion configurations for complex wells where such configurations may be built in the field, may provide detailed enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) formulations where such formulations may be implemented in the field, may analyze application of steam injection and other thermal EOR techniques for implementation in the field, advanced production controls in terms of reservoir coupling and flexible field management, and flexibility to script customized solutions for improved modeling and field management control. The INTERSECT framework, as with the other example frameworks, may be utilized as part of the DELFI environment, for example, for rapid simulation of multiple concurrent cases. For example, a workflow may utilize one or more of the DELFI environment on demand reservoir simulation features.

The aforementioned DELFI environment provides various features for workflows as to subsurface analysis, planning, construction and production, for example, as illustrated in the workspace framework 110. As shown in FIG. 1, outputs from the workspace framework 110 may be utilized for directing, controlling, etc., one or more processes in the geologic environment 150 and, feedback 160, may be received via one or more interfaces in one or more forms (e.g., acquired data as to operational conditions, equipment conditions, environment conditions, etc.).

As an example, a workflow may progress to a geology and geophysics (“G&G”) service provider, which may generate a well trajectory, which may involve execution of one or more G&G frameworks (e.g., consider the PETREL framework, etc.).

In the example of FIG. 1, the visualization features 123 may be implemented via the workspace framework 110, for example, to perform tasks as associated with one or more of subsurface regions, planning operations, constructing wells and/or surface fluid networks, and producing from a reservoir.

As an example, a visualization process may implement one or more of various features that may be suitable for one or more web applications. For example, a template may involve use of the JAVASCRIPT object notation format (JSON) and/or one or more other languages/formats. As an example, a framework may include one or more converters. For example, consider a JSON to PYTHON converter and/or a PYTHON to JSON converter. Such an approach may provide for compatibility of devices, frameworks, etc., with respect to one or more sets of instructions.

As an example, visualization features may provide for visualization of various earth models, properties, etc., in one or more dimensions. As an example, visualization features may provide for rendering of information in multiple dimensions, which may optionally include multiple resolution rendering. In such an example, information being rendered may be associated with one or more frameworks and/or one or more data stores. As an example, visualization features may include one or more control features for control of equipment, which may include, for example, field equipment that may perform one or more field operations. As an example, a workflow may utilize one or more frameworks to generate information that may be utilized to control one or more types of field equipment (e.g., drilling equipment, wireline equipment, fracturing equipment, etc.).

As to a reservoir model that may be suitable for utilization by a simulator, consider acquisition of seismic data as acquired via reflection seismology, which finds use in geophysics, for example, to estimate properties of subsurface formations. As an example, reflection seismology may provide seismic data representing waves of elastic energy (e.g., as transmitted by P-waves and S-waves, in a frequency range of approximately 1 Hz to approximately 100 Hz). Seismic data may be processed and interpreted, for example, to understand better composition, fluid content, extent and geometry of subsurface rocks. Such interpretation results may be utilized to plan, simulate, perform, etc., one or more operations for production of fluid from a reservoir (e.g., reservoir rock, etc.).

As an example, a model may be a simulated version of a geologic environment. As an example, a simulator may include features for simulating physical phenomena in a geologic environment based at least in part on a model or models. A simulator, such as a reservoir simulator, may simulate fluid flow in a geologic environment based at least in part on a model that may be generated via a framework that receives seismic data. A simulator may be a computerized system (e.g., a computing system) that may execute instructions using one or more processors to solve a system of equations that describe physical phenomena subject to various constraints. In such an example, the system of equations may be spatially defined (e.g., numerically discretized) according to a spatial model that that includes layers of rock, geobodies, etc., that have corresponding positions that may be based on interpretation of seismic and/or other data. A spatial model may be a cell-based model where cells are defined by a grid (e.g., a mesh). A cell in a cell-based model may represent a physical area or volume in a geologic environment where the cell may be assigned physical properties (e.g., permeability, fluid properties, etc.) that may be germane to one or more physical phenomena (e.g., fluid volume, fluid flow, pressure, etc.). A reservoir simulation model may be a spatial model that may be cell-based.

While several simulators are illustrated in the example of FIG. 1, one or more other simulators may be utilized, additionally or alternatively. For example, consider the VISAGE geomechanics simulator (SLB, Houston Texas) or the PIPESIM network simulator (SLB, Houston Texas), etc.

As an example, a workflow may utilize one or more types of data for one or more processes (e.g., stratigraphic modeling, basin modeling, completion designs, drilling, production, injection, etc.). As an example, one or more tools may provide data that may be used in a workflow or workflows that may implement one or more frameworks (e.g., PETREL, TECHLOG, PETROMOD, ECLIPSE, etc.).

In the example of FIG. 1, drilling may be performed in the geologic environment 150, for example, to access the reservoir 151, which may be accessed from land or offshore. In FIG. 1, the downhole equipment 154 may be, for example, part of a bottom hole assembly (BHA). The BHA may be used to drill a well. The downhole equipment 154 may communicate information to equipment at the surface, and may receive instructions and information from the equipment at the surface. During a well construction process, a variety of operations (such as cementing, wireline evaluation, testing, etc.) may be conducted. In such embodiments, data collected by tools and sensors and used for reasons such as reservoir characterization may be collected and transmitted.

A well may include a substantially horizontal portion (e.g., lateral portion) that may intersect with one or more fractures. For example, a well in a shale formation may pass through natural fractures, artificial fractures (e.g., hydraulic fractures), or a combination thereof. Such a well may be constructed using directional drilling techniques as described herein. However, these same techniques may be used in connection with other types of directional wells (such as slant wells, S-shaped wells, deep inclined wells, and others) and are not limited to horizontal wells.

FIG. 2 shows an example of a wellsite system 200 (e.g., at a wellsite that may be onshore or offshore). As shown, the wellsite system 200 may include a mud tank 201 for holding mud and other material (e.g., where mud may be a drilling fluid), a suction line 203 that serves as an inlet to a mud pump 204 for pumping mud from the mud tank 201 such that mud flows to a vibrating hose 206, a drawworks 207 for winching drill line or drill lines 212, a standpipe 208 that receives mud from the vibrating hose 206, a kelly hose 209 that receives mud from the standpipe 208, a gooseneck or goosenecks 210, a traveling block 211, a crown block 213 for carrying the traveling block 211 via the drill line or drill lines 212, a derrick 214, a kelly 218 or a top drive 240, a kelly drive bushing 219, a rotary table 220, a drill floor 221, a bell nipple 222, one or more blowout preventors (BOPs) 223, a drillstring 225, a drill bit 226, a casing head 227 and a flow pipe 228 that carries mud and other material to, for example, the mud tank 201.

In the example system of FIG. 2, a borehole 232 is formed in subsurface formations 230 by rotary drilling; noting that various example embodiments may also use directional drilling.

As shown in the example of FIG. 2, the drillstring 225 is suspended within the borehole 232 and has a drillstring assembly 250 that includes the drill bit 226 at its lower end. As an example, the drillstring assembly 250 may be a bottom hole assembly (BHA).

The wellsite system 200 may provide for operation of the drillstring 225 and other operations. As shown, the wellsite system 200 includes the platform 211 and the derrick 214 positioned over the borehole 232. As mentioned, the wellsite system 200 may include the rotary table 220 where the drillstring 225 pass through an opening in the rotary table 220.

As shown in the example of FIG. 2, the wellsite system 200 may include the kelly 218 and associated components, etc., or a top drive 240 and associated components. As to a kelly example, the kelly 218 may be a square or hexagonal metal/alloy bar with a hole drilled therein that serves as a mud flow path. The kelly 218 may be used to transmit rotary motion from the rotary table 220 via the kelly drive bushing 219 to the drillstring 225, while allowing the drillstring 225 to be lowered or raised during rotation. The kelly 218 may pass through the kelly drive bushing 219, which may be driven by the rotary table 220. As an example, the rotary table 220 may include a master bushing that operatively couples to the kelly drive bushing 219 such that rotation of the rotary table 220 may turn the kelly drive bushing 219 and hence the kelly 218. The kelly drive bushing 219 may include an inside profile matching an outside profile (e.g., square, hexagonal, etc.) of the kelly 218; however, with slightly larger dimensions so that the kelly 218 may freely move up and down inside the kelly drive bushing 219.

As to a top drive example, the top drive 240 may provide functions performed by a kelly and a rotary table. The top drive 240 may turn the drillstring 225. As an example, the top drive 240 may include one or more motors (e.g., electric and/or hydraulic) connected with appropriate gearing to a short section of pipe called a quill, that in turn may be screwed into a saver sub or the drillstring 225 itself. The top drive 240 may be suspended from the traveling block 211, so the rotary mechanism is free to travel up and down the derrick 214. As an example, a top drive 240 may allow for drilling to be performed with more joint stands than a kelly/rotary table approach.

In the example of FIG. 2, the mud tank 201 may hold mud, which may be one or more types of drilling fluids. As an example, a wellbore may be drilled to produce fluid, inject fluid or both (e.g., hydrocarbons, minerals, water, etc.).

In the example of FIG. 2, the drillstring 225 (e.g., including one or more downhole tools) may be composed of a series of pipes threadably connected together to form a long tube with the drill bit 226 at the lower end thereof. As the drillstring 225 is advanced into a wellbore for drilling, at some point in time prior to or coincident with drilling, the mud may be pumped by the pump 204 from the mud tank 201 (e.g., or other source) via the lines 206, 208 and 209 to a port of the kelly 218 or, for example, to a port of the top drive 240. The mud may then flow via a passage (e.g., or passages) in the drillstring 225 and out of ports located on the drill bit 226 (see, e.g., a directional arrow). As the mud exits the drillstring 225 via ports in the drill bit 226, it may then circulate upwardly through an annular region between an outer surface(s) of the drillstring 225 and surrounding wall(s) (e.g., open borehole, casing, etc.), as indicated by directional arrows. In such a manner, the mud lubricates the drill bit 226 and carries heat energy (e.g., frictional or other energy) and formation cuttings to the surface where the mud (e.g., and cuttings) may be returned to the mud tank 201, for example, for recirculation (e.g., with processing to remove cuttings, etc.).

The mud pumped by the pump 204 into the drillstring 225 may, after exiting the drillstring 225, form a mudcake that lines the wellbore which, among other functions, may reduce friction between the drillstring 225 and surrounding wall(s) (e.g., borehole, casing, etc.). A reduction in friction may facilitate advancing or retracting the drillstring 225. During a drilling operation, the entire drillstring 225 may be pulled from a wellbore and optionally replaced, for example, with a new or sharpened drill bit, a smaller diameter drillstring, etc. As mentioned, the act of pulling a drillstring out of a hole or replacing it in a hole is referred to as tripping. A trip may be referred to as an upward trip or an outward trip or as a downward trip or an inward trip depending on trip direction.

As an example, consider a downward trip where upon arrival of the drill bit 226 of the drillstring 225 at a bottom of a wellbore, pumping of the mud commences to lubricate the drill bit 226 for purposes of drilling to enlarge the wellbore. As mentioned, the mud may be pumped by the pump 204 into a passage of the drillstring 225 and, upon filling of the passage, the mud may be used as a transmission medium to transmit energy, for example, energy that may encode information as in mud-pulse telemetry.

As an example, mud-pulse telemetry equipment may include a downhole device configured to effect changes in pressure in the mud to create an acoustic wave or waves upon which information may modulated. In such an example, information from downhole equipment (e.g., one or more modules of the drillstring 225) may be transmitted uphole to an uphole device, which may relay such information to other equipment for processing, control, etc.

As an example, telemetry equipment may operate via transmission of energy via the drillstring 225 itself. For example, consider a signal generator that imparts coded energy signals to the drillstring 225 and repeaters that may receive such energy and repeat it to further transmit the coded energy signals (e.g., information, etc.).

As an example, the drillstring 225 may be fitted with telemetry equipment 252 that includes a rotatable drive shaft, a turbine impeller mechanically coupled to the drive shaft such that the mud may cause the turbine impeller to rotate, a modulator rotor mechanically coupled to the drive shaft such that rotation of the turbine impeller causes said modulator rotor to rotate, a modulator stator mounted adjacent to or proximate to the modulator rotor such that rotation of the modulator rotor relative to the modulator stator creates pressure pulses in the mud, and a controllable brake for selectively braking rotation of the modulator rotor to modulate pressure pulses. In such example, an alternator may be coupled to the aforementioned drive shaft where the alternator includes at least one stator winding electrically coupled to a control circuit to selectively short the at least one stator winding to electromagnetically brake the alternator and thereby selectively brake rotation of the modulator rotor to modulate the pressure pulses in the mud.

In the example of FIG. 2, an uphole control and/or data acquisition system 262 may include circuitry to sense pressure pulses generated by telemetry equipment 252 and, for example, communicate sensed pressure pulses or information derived therefrom for process, control, etc.

The assembly 250 of the illustrated example includes a logging-while-drilling (LWD) module 254 (e.g., a LWD tool), a measuring-while-drilling (MWD) module 256 (e.g., a MWD tool), an optional module 258, a rotary steerable system (RSS), an at-bit steerable system (ABSS), and/or a motor 260, and the drill bit 226. Such components or modules may be referred to as tools where a drillstring may include a plurality of tools.

As an example, an RSS may provide for directional drilling with continuous rotation from the surface, for example, without having to utilize a slide mode (e.g., sliding mode using a mud motor, etc.). An RSS may be deployed when drilling directional, horizontal, and/or extended-reach wells. As an example, an RSS may provide for applying a relatively consistent side force (e.g., akin to a stabilizer) that rotates with a drillstring or otherwise orients a bit in a desired direction while continuously rotating at the same number of rotations per minute as the drillstring.

As an example, an ABSS may be a type of RSS. As an example, an ABSS may include a steering sleeve assembly. For example, consider a sleeve assembly that may include one or more features of an ABSS such as the NEOSTEER system (SLB, Houston, Texas). As an example, an ABSS may include an actuating system that may controllably exert pressure against a borehole wall. For example, consider a number of integrated pistons that may provide for enhancing curvature leverage within a cutting structure. In such an example, such leveraging may provide for achieving desirable build rates. An ABSS may provide for meeting curvature requirements in a curve section and directional control in a lateral section. As an example, a steering unit may incorporate metal-to-metal hydraulic seals that may help to minimize erosion and enhance hydraulic design capacity for improved performance. As an example, an ABSS may be configured within a motor-assisted BHA to provide suitable RPM levels accompanied by directional control and reliable steerability.

As an example, directional drilling may involve use of a mud motor; however, in various scenarios, a mud motor may present some challenges depending on factors such as rate of penetration (ROP), transferring weight to a bit (e.g., weight on bit, WOB) due to friction, etc. A mud motor may be a positive displacement motor (PDM) that operates to drive a bit (e.g., during directional drilling, etc.). A PDM operates as drilling fluid is pumped through it where the PDM converts hydraulic power of the drilling fluid into mechanical power to cause the bit to rotate.

As an example, a PDM may operate in a combined rotating mode where surface equipment is utilized to rotate a bit of a drillstring (e.g., a rotary table, a top drive, etc.) by rotating the entire drillstring and where drilling fluid is utilized to rotate the bit of the drillstring. In such an example, a surface RPM (SRPM) may be determined by use of the surface equipment and a downhole RPM of the mud motor may be determined using various factors related to flow of drilling fluid, mud motor type, etc. As an example, in the combined rotating mode, bit RPM may be determined or estimated as a sum of the SRPM and the mud motor RPM, assuming the SRPM and the mud motor RPM are in the same direction.

As an example, a PDM mud motor may operate in a so-called sliding mode, when the drillstring is not rotated from the surface to drive a drill bit in a particular cutting direction. In such an example, a bit RPM may be determined or estimated based on the RPM of the mud motor. As an example, during a sliding mode, oscillation of a drillstring may be provided by surface equipment, for example, to oscillate the drillstring in a clockwise and a counter-clockwise direction, which may, for example, help to reduce risk of sticking, etc.

As explained, one or more technologies may be utilized for directional drilling. Directional drilling involves drilling into the Earth to form a deviated bore such that the trajectory of the bore is not vertical; rather, the trajectory deviates from vertical along one or more portions of the bore. As an example, consider a target that is located at a lateral distance from a surface location where a rig may be stationed. In such an example, drilling may commence with a vertical portion and then deviate from vertical such that the bore is aimed at the target and, eventually, reaches the target. Directional drilling may be implemented where a target may be inaccessible from a vertical location at the surface of the Earth, where material exists in the Earth that may impede drilling or otherwise be detrimental (e.g., consider a salt dome, etc.), where a formation is laterally extensive (e.g., consider a relatively thin yet laterally extensive reservoir), where multiple bores are to be drilled from a single surface bore, where a relief well is desired, etc.

In the example of FIG. 2, the LWD module 254 may be housed in a suitable type of drill collar and may contain one or a plurality of selected types of logging tools. It will also be understood that more than one LWD and/or MWD module may be employed. Where the position of a module is mentioned, as an example, it may refer to a module at the position of the LWD module 254, the MWD module 256, etc. An LWD module may include capabilities for measuring, processing, and storing information, as well as for communicating with the surface equipment. In the illustrated example, the LWD module 254 may include a seismic measuring device.

In the example of FIG. 2, the MWD module 256 may be housed in a suitable type of drill collar and may contain one or more devices for measuring characteristics of the drillstring 225 and the drill bit 226. As an example, the MWD module 256 may include equipment for generating electrical power, for example, to power various components of the drillstring 225. As an example, the MWD module 256 may include the telemetry equipment 252, for example, where the turbine impeller may generate power by flow of the mud; it being understood that other power and/or battery systems may be employed for purposes of powering various components. As an example, the MWD module 256 may include one or more of the following types of measuring devices: a weight-on-bit measuring device, a torque measuring device, a vibration measuring device, a shock measuring device, a stick slip measuring device, a direction measuring device, and an inclination measuring device.

FIG. 2 also shows some examples of types of holes that may be drilled. For example, consider a slant hole 272, an S-shaped hole 274, a deep inclined hole 276 and a horizontal hole 278.

As an example, a drilling operation may include directional drilling where, for example, at least a portion of a well includes a curved axis. For example, consider a radius that defines curvature where an inclination with regard to the vertical may vary until reaching an angle between about 30 degrees and about 60 degrees or, for example, an angle to about 90 degrees or possibly greater than about 90 degrees.

As an example, a directional well may include several shapes where each of the shapes may aim to meet particular operational demands. As an example, a drilling process may be performed on the basis of information as and when it is relayed to a drilling engineer. As an example, inclination and/or direction may be modified based on information received during a drilling process.

As an example, deviation of a bore may be accomplished in part by use of one or more of an RSS, a downhole motor and/or a turbine. As to a motor, for example, a drillstring may include a positive displacement motor (PDM).

As an example, a system may be a steerable system and include equipment to perform a method such as geosteering. As an example, a steerable system may include a PDM or a turbine on a lower part of a drillstring which, just above a drill bit, a bent sub may be mounted. As an example, above a PDM, MWD equipment that provides real time or near real time data of interest (e.g., inclination, direction, pressure, temperature, real weight on the drill bit, torque stress, etc.) and/or LWD equipment may be installed. As to the latter, LWD equipment may make it possible to send to the surface various types of data of interest, including for example, geological data (e.g., gamma ray log, resistivity, density and sonic logs, etc.).

The coupling of sensors providing information on the course of a well trajectory, in real time or near real time, with, for example, one or more logs characterizing the formations from a geological viewpoint, may allow for implementing a geosteering method. Such a method may include navigating a subsurface environment, for example, to follow a desired route to reach a desired target or targets.

As an example, a drillstring may include an azimuthal density neutron (ADN) tool for measuring density and porosity; a MWD tool for measuring inclination, azimuth and shocks; a compensated dual resistivity (CDR) tool for measuring resistivity and gamma ray related phenomena; one or more variable gauge stabilizers; one or more bend joints; and a geosteering tool, which may include a motor and optionally equipment for measuring and/or responding to one or more of inclination, resistivity and gamma ray related phenomena.

As an example, geosteering may include intentional directional control of a wellbore based on results of downhole geological logging measurements in a manner that aims to keep a directional wellbore within a desired region, zone (e.g., a pay zone), etc. As an example, geosteering may include directing a wellbore to keep the wellbore in a particular section of a reservoir, for example, to minimize gas and/or water breakthrough and, for example, to maximize economic production from a well that includes the wellbore.

Referring again to FIG. 2, the wellsite system 200 may include one or more sensors 264 that are operatively coupled to the control and/or data acquisition system 262. As an example, a sensor or sensors may be at surface locations. As an example, a sensor or sensors may be at downhole locations. As an example, a sensor or sensors may be at one or more remote locations that are not within a distance of the order of about one hundred meters from the wellsite system 200. As an example, a sensor or sensor may be at an offset wellsite where the wellsite system 200 and the offset wellsite are in a common field (e.g., oil and/or gas field).

As an example, one or more of the sensors 264 may be provided for tracking pipe, tracking movement of at least a portion of a drillstring, etc.

As an example, the system 200 may include one or more sensors 266 that may sense and/or transmit signals to a fluid conduit such as a drilling fluid conduit (e.g., a drilling mud conduit). For example, in the system 200, the one or more sensors 266 may be operatively coupled to portions of the standpipe 208 through which mud flows. As an example, a downhole tool may generate pulses that may travel through the mud and be sensed by one or more of the one or more sensors 266. In such an example, the downhole tool may include associated circuitry such as, for example, encoding circuitry that may encode signals, for example, to reduce demands as to transmission. As an example, circuitry at the surface may include decoding circuitry to decode encoded information transmitted at least in part via mud-pulse telemetry. As an example, circuitry at the surface may include encoder circuitry and/or decoder circuitry and circuitry downhole may include encoder circuitry and/or decoder circuitry. As an example, the system 200 may include a transmitter that may generate signals that may be transmitted downhole via mud (e.g., drilling fluid) as a transmission medium.

As an example, one or more portions of a drillstring may become stuck. The term stuck may refer to one or more of varying degrees of inability to move or remove a drillstring from a bore. As an example, in a stuck condition, it might be possible to rotate pipe or lower it back into a bore or, for example, in a stuck condition, there may be an inability to move the drillstring axially in the bore, though some amount of rotation may be possible. As an example, in a stuck condition, there may be an inability to move at least a portion of the drillstring axially and rotationally.

As to the term “stuck pipe”, this term may refer to a portion of a drillstring that cannot be rotated or moved axially. As an example, a condition referred to as “differential sticking” may be a condition whereby the drillstring cannot be moved (e.g., rotated or reciprocated) along the axis of the bore. Differential sticking may occur when high-contact forces caused by low reservoir pressures, high wellbore pressures, or both, are exerted over a sufficiently large area of the drillstring. Differential sticking may have time and financial cost.

As an example, a sticking force may be a product of the differential pressure between the wellbore and the reservoir and the area that the differential pressure is acting upon. This means that a relatively low differential pressure (delta p) applied over a large working area may be just as effective in sticking pipe as may a high differential pressure applied over a small area.

As an example, a condition referred to as “mechanical sticking” may be a condition where limiting or prevention of motion of the drillstring by a mechanism other than differential pressure sticking occurs. Mechanical sticking may be caused, for example, by one or more of junk in the hole, wellbore geometry anomalies, cement, keyseats or a buildup of cuttings in the annulus.

Various types of data associated with field operations may be 1-D series data. For example, consider data as to one or more of a drilling system, downhole states, formation attributes, and surface mechanics being measured as single or multi-channel time series data.

FIG. 3 shows an example of a drilling fluid system 300 that may aim to provide for various operations, which may include one or more of removing cuttings from a well, controlling formation pressures, suspending and releasing cutting, sealing permeable formations, maintaining wellbore stability, minimizing formation damage, cooling, lubricating and supporting a bit and drilling assembly, transmitting hydraulic energy to one or more downhole tools and/or a bit, ensuring adequate formation evaluation, controlling corrosion, facilitating cementing and completion, preventing gas hydrate formation, and minimizing impact on the environment.

As shown in the example of FIG. 3, the system 300 may include a return line 310 and a discharge line 390 (see also, e.g., the lines, pipes, hoses, etc., 206, 208, 209, 210, and 228 of FIG. 2). In the example of FIG. 3, the system 300 may include a shaker 322, a desander 324, a desilter 326, and a degasser 328 associated with various mud pits 320 (e.g., mud tanks) that may receive drilling fluid via the return line 310 and output processed drilling fluid to an active pit 332 that may be in fluid communication with a suction pit 334 and a reserve pit 336 where the suction pit 334 may be in fluid communication with a pump 350 that may pump drilling fluid to the discharge line 390. As an example, one or more mixing units 342 may be included, for example, for addition of one or more materials to the drilling fluid before it is pumped to the discharge line 390.

As an example, the system 300 may be utilized for one or more types of operations, which may include drilling, wireline, completions, blow out control, etc. As to completions, as an example, a cementing operation may include pumping and/or receiving of drilling fluid where cement may be positioned between casing and a borehole wall.

As an example, cuttings may be retrieved at surface, for example, using one or more of the components of the system 200 of FIG. 2, the system 300 of FIG. 3, etc. Cuttings may be produced as rock is broken by a drill bit advancing through a subsurface environment. As explained, cuttings may be carried to surface by drilling fluid (e.g., mud) circulating from one or more openings of a tool string such as, for example, openings of a drill bit of a drillstring. Drill cuttings may be separated from fluid using one or more types of equipment such as, for example, shale shakers, centrifuges, cyclone separators, etc. In cable-tool drilling, cuttings may be periodically bailed out of a bottom of a borehole. In auger drilling, cuttings may be carried to surface on auger flights.

Various different types of drill bits exist where two predominate types of drill bits are roller cone bits and fixed cutter (or rotary drag) bits. Most fixed cutter bit designs include blades angularly spaced about a bit face. The blades project radially outward from a bit body and form flow channels therebetween. Cutting elements may be grouped and mounted on several blades, for example, in radially extending rows.

Cutting elements disposed on the blades of a fixed cutter bit may be formed of extremely hard material. As an example, for a fixed cutter bit, each cutting element may include an elongate and generally cylindrical tungsten carbide substrate that is received and secured in a pocked formed in a surface of a blade. As an example, cutting elements may include a hard cutting layer of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) or other superabrasive materials such as thermally stable diamond or polycrystalline cubic boron nitride.

FIG. 4 shows an example of a bit 400 suitable for drilling through formations of rock to form a borehole. The bit 400 may include a bit body 412, a shank 413, and a threaded connection or pin 414 for connecting the bit 400 to a drillstring employed to rotate the bit 400 to drill a borehole. A bit face 420 may support a cutting structure 415 and be formed on an end of the bit 400 that is opposite pin end 416. The bit 400 may further be defined according to a central axis z about which bit 400 may rotate in a cutting direction represented by arrow.

As shown, the cutting structure 415 may be provided on the face 420 of bit 400. The cutting structure 415 may include angularly spaced-apart blades 430 that extend from the bit face 420. While six blades 430 are shown, the number of blades and blade types may vary (e.g., consider more or less blades, primary blades, secondary blades, etc.). As an example, a secondary blade of a bit may refer to a blade that begins at some distance from a bit axis and extends generally radially along a bit face to a periphery of the bit.

As an example, a blade may include a blade top 442 for mounting cutting elements 440. Each of the cutting elements 440 may include a respective cutting face 444. As an example, the blades 430 may include pockets 450 where each of the cutting elements 440 may be mounted in a correspond one of the pockets 450 as formed in blade tops 442. The cutting elements 440 may be arranged adjacent one another in a radially extending row proximal a leading edge of each of the blades 430.

As explained, the cutting elements 440 may be embedded in the pockets 450 of the blades 430 where the cutting elements 440 may break rock as the drill bit 400 is rotated on a bottom surface of a borehole. As explained, the cutting elements 440 may be fixed cutter elements that may include PDC or other specially manufactured cutter material.

As an example, the cutting elements 440 may be rotatable cutter elements (e.g., rotatable cutters). For example, a cutting element may include a sleeve portion where a cutting face portion is coupled to a shaft portion received by a bore of the sleeve portion. As an example, one or more cutting elements of the ENDURO 360 family of cutting elements may be utilized (SLB, Houston, Texas). A rotatable cutter may provide for reduction of mechanical and/or thermal effects that may promote wear and/or chipping of a cutter. For example, a fixed cutter is set within a pocket in a manner whereby the fixed cutter does not rotate such that a particular portion of the fixed cutter may engage a formation and wear and/or chip due to mechanical and/or thermal effects. A rotatable cutter may increase durability by help to ensure that a portion of the rotatable cutter such as an edge that makes contact with a formation is continually refreshed such that the edge may stay sharper longer. As to an edge, consider a perimeter of a cutting face that may be substantially circular and able to rotate by 360 degrees about a longitudinal axis of a rotatable cutter such that the entire perimeter may be available at times to contact rock and break the rock during drilling. As an example, rotating action of a rotatable cutter may improve thermal dissipation, which may help to reduce concentrated heat buildup. Heat buildup may occur in an asymmetric manner, which may cause heterogeneity in temperature distributions within a cutter. As a cutter may be characterized at least in part by thermal properties (e.g., thermal conductivity, coefficient of expansion, etc.), heterogeneity in temperature may increase stress or impact stress handling ability of a cutter. By rotating a cutter, heat energy caused by a portion of a cutter being a main portion interacting with rock may be dissipated as that portion rotates to a position where its interaction with rock is reduced and where another portion of the cutter rotates to become the main portion interaction with rock.

As an example, a cutter may be characterized by various dimensions such as, for example, a face dimension. As an example, a face dimension may be a diameter of a cylindrical cutter. For example, consider a diameter in a range from approximately 3 mm to approximately 30 mm or more. As to the ENDURO 360 (e.g., ENDUROBLADE 360) cutter elements, consider sizes of 13 mm, 16 mm, 19 mm, etc. As explained, a rotatable cutter may provide for increased strength and durability, which may provide for increases in run length and/or penetration rate (e.g., ROP).

As an example, a drill bit may include a number of cutters where the cutters may include fixed cutters and/or rotatable cutters. As an example, number, type and/or placement of cutters may be selected to provide desired drill bit behavior, such as, for example, improved durability in one or more high-wear areas of a drill bit.

As explained, drilling fluid (e.g., mud) may flow through passages of a drill bit to help lubricate the drill bit and to carry away cuttings. In the example of FIG. 4, the drill bit 400 is shown as including various openings 470, which may be referred to as mud ports.

In various instances, one or more types of physical phenomena may be simulated using a simulator. As an example, a simulator may be or include a drilling simulator. For example, consider one or more of the IDEAS family of simulators (IDEAS: Integrated Dynamic Engineering Analysis System, SLB, Houston, Texas). As an example, a drilling simulator may be utilized to predict downhole behavior to deal with various drilling challenges. An article by Centala et al., entitled “Bit Design—Top to Bottom”, Oilfield Review, Summer 2011: 23, no. 2, is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The article by Centala et al., describes various aspects of simulation, including finite element analysis (FEA) simulation where an FEA mesh may be utilized to represent a modeled body such as, for example, a drillstring. The article by Centala et al., also describes a drill bit optimization system (DBOS, SLB, Houston, Texas) along with a DBOS formation characterization database that may be operatively coupled with a drilling simulation framework (e.g., IDEAS simulator, etc.). Additionally, the article by Centala et al., describes the i-DRILL engineered drilling system (SLB, Houston, Texas), which may utilize a drilling simulator (e.g., IDEAS simulator, etc.). As an example, an IDEAS simulator may utilize information in a rock file as input, which may be specific to a rock and cutter combination (e.g., formation and bit combination). As an example, a rock file may be a type of file that includes various types of information suitable for performing one or more drilling simulations using one or more drilling simulators.

As explained, a simulator may utilize information in a rock file as input, which may be specific to a rock and cutter combination (e.g., formation and bit combination). As explained, a rock file may be a type of file that includes various types of information suitable for performing one or more drilling simulations using one or more drilling simulators.

As an example, a formation model may operate using information included in a rock file or rock files. Such a file may provide for capturing bit cutter and rock interactions. A rock file may include information derived via experiments and/or field data. As an example, a rock file may be based at least in part on variations in depth, back rake (BR), and side rack (SR). As an example, a cutter may be a component of a bit that includes a number of cutters, which may be of differing size, shape and/or material. As an example, data may include operational data as to depth, BR, and SR for different cutters, and different types of rock, where confining pressure may be varied (e.g., 3000 psi, 6000 psi, 9000 psi, etc.). Output from such experiments may be organized in the form of a rock file, which may be part of a formation model. As an example, a formation model may also include properties as to tortuosity setting, damping coefficients, homogeneity or inhomogeneity, interbedded rock, inclusion rock, friction dependence on speed, rock type, etc. As to friction and speed, friction and/or types of friction may vary in a manner dependent on velocity. For example, a friction profile may be generated with respect to velocity where the friction profile may include a breakaway friction, a Stribeck friction, a Coulomb friction, a stiction friction, a viscous friction, etc. As explained, a formation may be layers in an inhomogeneous manner and/or include inclusions.

As an example, a formation model may include or be associated with a context. For example, context may include information as to trajectory, wellbore geometry, mud (drilling fluid), BHA, bit, etc. Such information may be embedded in a formation model as contextual information for purposes of simulation, for example, to restore field measurements via simulation. As an example, an inverse technique may aim to adjust one or more physical aspects of a formation model such that a suitable match is achieved between field measurements (e.g., field data) and simulation results. As a simulator may be a drilling simulator, context may provide for knowing how a scenario (e.g., drillstring, borehole, etc.) relate to a formation as characterized by physical aspects of a formation model.

As an example, a formation model may include information as to trajectory, wellbore geometry, BHA (e.g., BHA components, etc.), bit and formation. As explained, some information may be as to physical aspects of a formation and other information may be contextual.

As an example, a simulator may include or be operative coupled to a transformer. For example, consider a system that may include one or more application programming interfaces (APIs) where a simulator may issue one or more API calls and receive one or more responses in return. In such an example, a response may include information that may improve simulation results. As an example, a simulator may be part of a computational framework where a transformer may be an add-on, a plug-in, a separate component or framework, etc. As an example, a transformer may be a transformer framework that includes instructions executable by one or more processors to generate information that may be utilized in performing one or more simulations of a simulation framework.

As an example, a transformer framework may provide for various techniques that may improve simulation results. For example, consider a transformer framework that may enable an IDEAS simulator to investigate one or more additional physical parameters against cutting force. As an example, a transformer framework may provide for one or more physical parameters to be involved in, or more accurately involved in, modeling and/or simulation of bit and formation interaction. For example, consider a transformer framework that may provide for utilization of learnings from laboratory tests to be integrated into modeling and/or simulation of bit behavior during drilling. As an example, a transformer framework may enable a simulator to account for particular physical phenomena such as, for example, phenomena related to one or more of temperature, heat transfer, stress, strain, fluid dynamics, fluid properties, rock physics, etc.

As explained, a simulator may be a drilling simulator such as, for example, an IDEAS family simulator. In operation, a simulator may depend on data acquired from laboratory tests, which may aim to capture various aspects of physics of cutter-rock interaction. For example, consider information such as cutting forces curves against cutting depth and back rake angle (BR angle) and side rake angle (SR angle). For some complex field cases such as stick slip or high frequency torsional oscillation, a simulator may not necessarily include features for predictions or meaning predictions. For example, an IDEAS simulator may be unable to accurately predict actual field observation behaviors due to the lack of one or more features. In such an example, consider a lack of features that may account for physics related to one or more of speed effect, rock shape effect, rolling angle effect and chipping effect.

As an example, a transformer framework may provide a simulation framework with an ability to add one or more features. For example, consider a simulation framework that may include an ability to operate using a plug-in mechanism that may enable one or more features. For example, consider an approach where one or more user selected functions, user selected data lists, user selected subroutines may be accessed to extend a simulator to account for one or more additional physical parameters that may affect cutting forces. As an example, one or more models may be calibrated using laboratory test data and validated using data from one or more field applications. As an example, a validated model may be linked to or integrated into a simulation framework, for example, to leverage native prediction capabilities of the simulation framework. In various instances, a simulation framework such as, for example, the IDEAS framework, may provide for native prediction capabilities that may be extended and/or otherwise improved via a transformer framework. As an example, where one or more transformer framework features demonstrate sufficient drilling simulation utility, such one or more features may be integrated into a simulation framework.

As an example, a drilling simulator may depend on cutter-rock laboratory tests and, for example, interpolation thereof, to predict bit behavior and/or drillstring behavior. As an example, a transformer framework may provide for transforming a model in one or more manners. For example, consider a transformer framework that may provide for transforming a cutter-rock model usable by one or more simulators such that simulation may account for more detailed physics.

As explained, an API, add-on, plug-in, etc., approach may be utilized for linking a transformer framework to a simulation framework. In such examples, a simulation framework may be suitably modified or provided with one or more interactive mechanisms, which, for example, may provide for extending simulation capabilities. For example, consider an ability to enable expert users to prototype one or more advanced cutter-rock models. In such an example, a model or models may account for one or more of speed effect, rock shape effect, rolling angle effect, and chipping effect.

As an example, a transformer framework may provide for discovery of one or more types of physical phenomena germane to one or more drilling scenarios. For example, consider an ability to include one or more aspects of advanced physics that extend beyond native physics of a drilling simulator. In such an example, a transformer framework may provide for discovery and validation of advanced physics where, for example, relevance of advanced physics may be validated against laboratory and/or field data (e.g., as to cutting, behaviors, etc.). As an example, a transformer framework may provide for effectively embedding one or more advanced physics models into a drilling simulator, which may leverage native simulation techniques to enhance prediction accuracy of simulation results. In such an approach, a workflow may provide for improving one or more of drilling equipment, drilling plans, drilling operations, drilling performance, mitigation of one or more types of risks, etc. As an example, a transformer framework may be included in a system such as, for example, the system 100 of FIG. 1. In such an example, consider utilization of a drilling simulation framework and a transformer framework for one or more of planning, field operations control, energy utilization, emissions control, etc. As an example, a drilling simulation framework and a transformer framework may be utilized by a drill bit design and/or a drill bit cutter framework.

FIG. 5 shows a perspective view of an example of a blade 500 that may be part of a drill bit where the blade 500 includes a blade top 542 with a number of pockets 550-1, 550-2, . . . , 550-N. While the blade 500 includes seven pockets, a blade may include a lesser or a greater number of pockets.

As an example, one or more types of cutters may be utilized. For example, consider an assembly process that includes selecting one or more types of cutters and seating cutters of selected type or types in pockets of a blade. FIG. 5 shows some examples of cutters 540, which may include a planar cutter, a conical cutter, an axe cutter, a three-ridged cutter, etc. As shown, a cutter may be designed with a particular shape where the cutter and rock interactions may depend at least in part on shape.

FIG. 6 shows an example of laboratory testing equipment 600 along with examples of plots 604 and 608 of laboratory test data. As shown, a cutter 640 may be engaged with a rock sample 690 such that the cutter 640 applies force to the rock sample 690 to cut away a portion of the rock sample 690, as indicated by a void 699. In such an example, the equipment 600 may be controlled with respect to one or more parameters, which may include angle, speed, force, etc.

In FIG. 6, the plots 604 and 608 show smoothed cutting forces at different cutting speeds for cutting forces in the normal direction (Fn) and in the tangential direction (Ft) for a single cutter, where such forces correspond to WOB and torque on bit (TOB), respectively. The data in the plots 604 and 608 indicate that cutting forces increase with the number of revolutions because the area of cut (AOC) keeps increasing during the cutting process with a single cutter and more energy for rock fragmentation is consumed. In addition, a distinct hardening effect with increasing RPM is exhibited in the axial component; whereas, the tangential force remains substantially independent of cutting speed. This observed rate effect may be associated with one or more types of rock.

The rise of the cutting forces in single cutter tests with unsteady AOC is not encountered while drilling with a full bit because the cutting area in front of an individual cutter overlaps with grooves left by previous cutter trajectories. As an example, data may provide for generating values that represent axial and tangential force components normalized to AOC. As an example, a cutter aggressiveness, defined as the ratio of tangential and axial force, may be determined.

As an example, a drilling simulator model as to a cutter may depend on rock files where information therein may be mostly generated from laboratory tests. In various instances, field drilling may encounter high-frequency torsional oscillation (HFTO), which may be a concern as it may give rise to various risks. As an example, a transformer framework may provide for HFTO modeling, for example, by enabling incorporation of advanced physics, which may account for one or more of speed, rolling, rock shape, and chipping.

HFTO may arise in drilling environments that induce excessive vibrations on a BHA, which may result in premature tool failure, in operations using RSS-powered BHAs, in formations that provoke high cutter damage, which may result in premature trips out of hole, etc.

HFTO issues may demand utilization of particular equipment. For example, consider including a suppressor dampening tool on a drillstring to help absorb and reduce HFTO. Such an approach may help in reducing risk of BHA tool failure while drilling in various environments. Shock and vibration, specifically HFTO, may be substantial causes of downhole tool failure, which may result in cracked drill collars and/or broken measurement and electronic components. When these failures occur, additional unplanned trips may be required, resulting in additional drilling time and costs. By reducing downhole shock and vibration, a suppressor dampening tool may help to drill a section in a single run, saving unplanned costs associated with tripping time and redundant BHAs.

As an example, a simulation framework and a transformer framework may provide for assessing equipment as to risk of HFTO. For example, consider performing simulations as to HFTO where equipment selection, equipment operation, etc., may be tailored using simulation results. In various instances, a suppressor dampening tool may provide for damping HFTO where simulation may provide for optimizing HFTO reduction through selective tool placement. Such a tool may also provide for reduction of excessive shock and vibration at a bit, which may improve bit durability and cutter reliability (e.g., resulting in faster ROP, etc.).

As an example, a transformer framework may provide for enabling modeling of additional physical parameters, customization of rock behavior, implementation of one or more subroutines (e.g., as to rock behavior, etc.), etc.

FIG. 7 shows an example of a model 700 that includes a cutter 740, rock 790 and a rock surface 792 where the cutter 740 and rock surface 792 may be at a cutter-rock interface. In the example model 700, a depth of cut (DOC) is shown corresponding to cutter-rock interaction.

As an example, the model 700 may account for modeling of a process that includes various actions 701, 702, 703, and 704 as illustrated in FIG. 7. For example, the action 701 may involve digging a cutter into rock, the action 702 may include determining an interference area, the action 703 may include applying force according to information in a rock file, and the action 704 may include removing a portion of the rock to form a void. In the example of FIG. 7, the rock file may provide information as to F_V, F_C and F_S. For example, consider a transformer framework that may provide information as to one or more of BR, SR, DOC, speed, roll, etc., which may be, for example, based on interpolation of data, one or more functions, etc. For example, consider a force versus DOC plot or data structure that may provide for determinations as to F_V, F_C and F_S based at least in part on DOC. For example, consider the action 702 as determining a DOC using an interference area whereby the action 703 may set one or more forces by using the DOC as related to force.

FIG. 8 shows an example of a method 800 that may include a computation action 810 for computing an interference area between a cutter and rock using an action point P_c, an average depth D_ave and a width L_w. In such an example, the interference area may be defined as the product of the average depth and the width. As shown, a build action 820 may provide for building a coordinate system that provides for computing eBR (effective Back Rake, also denoted as ebr) and eSR (effective Side Rake, also denoted as esr). As shown, an interpolation action 830 may provide for determining F_V, F_C and F_S. For example, consider an interpolation that may use of a rock test table that may include information for determining one or more of penetration force, cutter force, and side force (F_V, F_C and F_S) given DOC and/or interference area. In such an example, an average depth D_ave may be considered to be a DOC. As an example, a transformer action may take effect after a coordinate system commences rotation.

FIG. 9 shows an example of a system 900 that may include a function 910, a data list 914, a plugin 918, a rock transformer 920 and a simulator workflow 930 (e.g., a simulator that may implement a simulation, etc.). As shown, the simulator workflow 930 may interact with the rock transformer 920. For example, consider a call and response type of interaction where the simulator workflow 930 may call the rock transformer 920 in a manner that provides information. In such an example, the rock transformer 920 may interact with one or more of the function 910, the data list 914 and the plugin 918 such that the rock transformer 920 may respond appropriately to the simulator workflow 930. In the example of FIG. 9, one or more interactions may be via executable code, one or more application programming interfaces (APIs), etc. As shown, the rock transformer 920 may generate one or more modified values for F_V, F_C, and/or F_S, which may be utilized by the simulator workflow 930, for example, to integrate cutter force to a bit and apply to action of a drillstring that includes the bit. As an example, the simulator workflow 930 may be an IDEAS simulator workflow.

As an example, a cutter-rock interaction model may be utilized for drill bit and drilling system modeling. As an example, various components of the system 900 may be utilized (e.g., as a framework, etc.) to enable creation, selection, etc., of one or more cutter-rock interaction models for drill bit and drilling system simulation. In such an example, such an approach may extend simulator capability to consider one or more additional cutter-rock interaction physics such as, for example, one or more of cutting force and efficiency changes due to one or more of cutting speed, cut shape, fluid interaction, cutter shape, orientations, etc. In such an example, a simulator may be enhanced with respect to its modeling capabilities, which may provide for improved capabilities to generate simulation results as to one or more types of physical phenomena that may occur during one or more field operations.

As an example, bit-rock interaction may be characterized more particularly involving cutter-rock interaction. In such an example, speed dependent torque behavior may be driven by cutter-rock interaction. In such an example, a framework may provide for modeling flexibility and specificity as to one or more cutting structures (e.g., one or more cutters).

In various instances, phenomena such as speed hardening or speed softening may be exhibited. In various instances, velocity-weakening torque characteristic may be attributed to rate-dependent rock cutting process at each cutter. For example, tangential cutting force may decrease with increasing cutting velocity. Such rate sensitivity may result from a reduction in tangential cutting force as a direct outcome of rock weakening at a higher velocity or may result from a mechanism that lowers the depth of cut (DOC) at a higher velocity because the tangential cutting force may decrease with reduced DOC. In the first scenario, the rate dependency may be an uncoupled behavior restricted in the tangential direction, which may be independent of axial dynamics; whereas, for the second scenario, a reduction of DOC over cutting velocity may be accomplished by rate hardening of the axial cutting force, implicating a tangential-axial coupling effect. For example, the axial force may increase with increasing cutting speed, thus creating an additional velocity-dependent lift force on a bit where the bit may be lifted if the weight on the bit (WOB) remains constant.

As an example, if a velocity-dependent cutting process with PDC cutters may be a root cause of a falling torque characteristic, then one or more approaches for reducing and mitigating self-excited HFTO may be deduced through modeling the rate hardening effect of cutting forces and assessment of one or more factors that may influence such a phenomenon. As an example, interaction between pore pressure dynamics and rock mechanical properties may have an impact on a rock cutting process. As an example, a framework may provide for performing one or more simulations in a manner that may account for one or more types of phenomena. As explained, one or more aspects of cutters and/or rock may be modeled according to capabilities provided via one or more frameworks (e.g., plugins, addons, etc.), which, in turn, may improve an ability to more accurately simulate one or more scenarios.

An article by Fu et al., entitled “Modeling and Investigation of the Velocity-Dependent Cutting Process with PDC Cutters Using the Discrete Element Method”, Shock and Vibration, 2023, pp. 1-15 (10.1155/2023/6381319) is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

As an example, one or more aspects of a bit torque model of a simulator may be modified using a framework. In such an example, an exponential decay relation of bit torque versus RPM may be examined with respect to HFTO simulation. As an example, an empirical model may be utilized to perform a simulation using a simulator.

As an example, a torque on bit (TOB) or bit torque model may be characterized by an equation such as follows:

TOB=TOB₀(exp(−(RPM−RPM₀)/(RPM₁−RPM₀))*(1−R_T)+R_T)

In such an example, TOB₀ may be the bit torque generated through simulation (e.g., in a speed independent manner) and R_T may be a decay ratio of bit torque. In such an example, consider an exponential decay curve for TOB versus RPM, which may decay over a range of RPMs such as, for example, from 0 RPM to 400 RPM. As an example, consider a scenario where TOB₀=5, RPM₀=0, RPM₁=150, and R_T=0.5.

As an example, a framework may provide for specifying and/or modeling one or more aspects of a cutter and/or a rock cut. For example, consider cutter roll angle, cut shape, etc. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling of force drop with respect to one or more aspects of a rock chip (e.g., rock chipping). For example, force drop may correlate with rock chip size. As an example, a framework may provide a simulator with capabilities to model drops in cutting force, which may be correlated with chipping events. For example, one or more types of chipping events may be defined by sudden drops in cutting force. In such an example, a further tie may be made to amount of rock removed (e.g., chip size, etc.).

As an example, a framework may account for chipping using one or more techniques. For example, consider characterizing material according to types, which may be plastic, medium, or brittle, and/or degrees thereof. As an example, a technique may include activating chipping by DOC, cut shape, and/or eBR. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling of chipping in a manner that removes rock as a chip in a direction of a reacting force projected to a cutting plane, which may adhere to one or more of a function of cut shape, eBR, etc.

In various examples, cutting elements with a 3D shaped cutting surface may be considered, which may differ from a cutting surface of a regular cylinder shaped PDC cutter. In various examples, such cutting elements may be referred to as 3DC elements. As an example, a 3DC element may be described with respect to a roll angle such as, for example, an angular position of a cutter referencing an axis of a cutter pocket cylindrical surface (e.g., a longitudinal axis of a cylinder). As an example, a framework may provide capabilities to improve characterization of one or more of cutting force versus cutting shape, cutting force versus cutting speed, cutting force versus 3DC roll angle, cutting force versus fluid type and pore pressure, post-cut surface, rock chipping, etc. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling of one or more passive contacting elements and rock interaction. For example, consider modeling of one or more types of equipment (e.g., gauge pads, stab pads, mud motor pads, etc.). As an example, forces versus penetration and/or rock removal due to rubbing may be modeled.

As an example, a framework may provide for modeling of one or more of a rock chipping effect, a cutting speed effect, a cutter-rock interaction area shape effect, a cutter shape and orientation effect, etc.

FIG. 10 shows an example of a framework 1000 that may operate using bit parameters that may include cutter speed, cut shape, eBR, and eSR. In such an example, one or more types of transformer information may be provided. As shown, the framework 1000 may operate using a plugin type of architecture.

FIG. 11 shows examples of frameworks 1110 and 1150 that may operate using bit parameters that may include one or more of cutter speed, cut shape, eBR, and eSR. In such an example, one or more types of transformer information may be provided. As shown, the frameworks 1110 and 1150 may operate using a plugin type of architecture.

As shown in FIG. 11, the framework 1110 may operate using a function that may be velocity dependent while the framework 1150 may operate using a function that may be contact dimension dependent.

FIG. 12 shows an example of a graphical user interface (GUI) 1200 that may be rendered to a display as part of a framework implementation to provide for modification of one or more aspects of a simulator. As shown, the GUI 1200 may include a rock list panel, a cutting elements panel, and an advanced setting panel. As shown, the rock list panel may list one or more types of rocks with corresponding identifiers and, for example, corresponding multipliers (e.g., rock multipliers). As to the cutting elements panel, tabs may be rendered as graphical controls that provide for navigation between types, families, etc., of cutters. As shown, cutter identifiers may be rendered along with cutter type and associated rock file. As an example, reference information and/or lateral fracturing information may be accessed and/or entered. In the example of FIG. 12, an advanced option may exist for selecting, setting, etc., one or more advanced aspects of cutting elements. As shown, in the advanced setting panel, a graphical control exists for using speed dependent torque in a simulation. As explained, torque may depend on rotational speed of a bit where a model may be selected, which may include parameters that may be set to default or other values.

FIG. 13 shows examples of a graphical user interfaces (GUIs) 1310 and 1320 that may be rendered to a display as part of a framework implementation to provide for modification of one or more aspects of a simulator. As an example, the GUIs 1310 and 1320 may be rendered upon interaction with the GUI 1200.

As shown, the GUI 1310 includes a graphical control for using a force dependent function and the GUI 1320 may provide for generation of a function. As shown, the GUI 1320 may include features for generating one or more functions as may be for F_V, F_C, and/or F_S. As shown, various related variables may be defined such that an individual may readily understand or generate a function. As shown, the variables may include RPM, eBR, eSR, velocity of cutter (v), interference area between cutter and rock, average depth of interference, effective width of interference, edge length of interference, maximum depth of interference, action angle, vertical force, cutting force, side force, etc. As indicated, for the IDEAS simulator, a force as a variable (see instances of lowercase letter “f”) may be determined according to information in a rock file and interference.

FIG. 14 shows examples of a graphical user interfaces (GUIs) 1410 and 1420 that may be rendered to a display as part of a framework implementation to provide for modification of one or more aspects of a simulator. As an example, the GUIs 1410 and 1420 may be rendered upon interaction with the GUI 1200.

As shown, the GUI 1410 may be utilized to construct or otherwise select a data list, which may include entries for velocity, F_V ratio, F_C ratio, and F_S ratio. As to the GUI 1420, it may provide for selection of a subroutine that may be linked into a simulator. In such an example, the subroutine may be simple or complex and describe one or more aspects of one or more physical phenomena that may occur during drilling.

As an example, a subroutine may be automatically integrated for execution via a simulator such that simulation of physical phenomena may be improved. In such an example, consider automatically moving one or more subroutine files into an appropriate location, which may include a header file location. In such an example, one or more native functions may be modified and/or one or more new functions implemented. In such an example, a dynamic library may be automatically complied to include one or more subroutine features. As an example, a subroutine name may be specified for a cutter-rock interaction transformer (e.g., consider a subroutine name being defined in a simulator structure such as, for example, CutterRockSub::ModifyForce). As to simulator execution, consider automatic execution according to a command such as, for example, ideas3_pdc -o <project> -plugin_dir <lib path>. In such an approach, a subroutine may be executed during simulation.

FIG. 15 shows an example GUI 1500 where a function may be generated for FV, which may depend on one or more of the variables rendered in the list along with one or more operators, which may be provided in a manner akin to a spread sheet application (e.g., consider the EXCEL spread sheet application, etc.).

FIG. 16 shows an example GUI 1600 where a function may be specified for a velocity dependent cutting force (F_C) such that a simulation may account for speed dependent torque as dependent on RPM (rpm). As an example, a function may be specified using the GUI 1600 for one or more other phenomena, behaviors, etc. For example, consider a function that provides for consideration of vertical force hardening (VFH) on linear velocity.

FIG. 17 shows an example GUI 1700 where a function may be specified in a manner that depends on velocity, for example, using a data list. As shown, a data list may be converted into a plot format. As explained, a function may be utilized by a rock transformer to transform one or more aspects of a simulator. For example, one or more forces may be modified using a rock transformer that includes one or more functions or other definitions for one or more relationships. In the example of FIG. 17, a force (e.g., F_V, F_C, and/or F_S) is modified according to a corresponding ratio. As shown, a ratio may depend on velocity, which may be specified in appropriate units (e.g., inches per second, millimeters per second, etc.).

FIG. 18 shows examples of interference shape scenarios 1810 and 1820, where an interference shape may be referred to as a cut shape. In the example scenario 1810, an interference shape may be defined using one or more of average depth, effective width, edge length, max depth, and action angle. In the example scenario 1820, an interference shape may be defined using one or more of base depth (d), additional height (h), and asymmetric offset (s). As an example, testing for particular rocks may provide results indicative of d, h, and/or s values. As shown, characteristics such as wide, deep, skewed, and crescent may be utilized, which may correspond to types of overlaps between two or more curves (e.g., arcs, etc.). As an example, a type of shape formed by an overlap of two or more curves (e.g., curve intersections) may be amenable to adjustment, for example, using one or more of the techniques associated with the scenario 1810 and/or the scenario 1820.

As an example, a framework may provide for reproducing HFTO with speed dependent cutting force on RPM. As an example, one or more aspects of HFTO may be simulated through use of a speed dependent bit torque. As an example, a framework may provide for static impact evaluation of vertical force hardening on linear velocity to fit speed dependent bit torque (SDBT). As an example, a framework may provide for simulating ROP in an improved manner such that, for example, ROP is not necessarily overestimated while RPM increases. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling forces on inner cutters, which may decrease, while forces on outer ones may increase. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling of work rate on inner cutters and outer cutters of a bit. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling the dynamic impact of vertical force hardening on linear velocity to fit SDBT. As an example, a framework may provide for reproduction of one or more aspects of HFTO that may be experienced by a drillstring. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling of ROP and torque being decreased via comparing with and without a speed effect. As an example, a framework may provide for modeling axial acceleration phenomena and, for example, when it may be increased and/or decreased.

As explained, a framework may provide for supplementing a simulator, for example, to provide for some understanding of physics that may be missing using a native model of the simulator. As an example, a framework may provide for supplying one or more of a relationship between RPM and linear velocity, coupling with cutting shape, relationship with rock type and/or moving direction, etc. As explained, improved modeling may lead to improved simulation results, which may provide for understanding of one or more types of stochastic effects that may occur during drilling operations. As explained, stochastic behaviors may be characterized via one or more types of analyses, which may assess, for example, frequency and/or magnitude.

FIG. 19 shows various graphics 1900 as to three example scenarios, labeled Scenario A, Scenario B, and Scenario C. As shown, each of the example scenarios pertains to a bottom hole assembly (BHA) with a bit and an associated borehole trajectory (BHT). Each of the scenarios may be assessed with respect to one or more bit-rock types of interactions. For example, consider speed dependent bit torque (SDBT). For example, torque with respect to speed (e.g., RPM) may be characterized such that torque may be known or estimated for one or more speeds. As shown, each of the scenarios has a different relationship for SDBT, which may depend on one or more characteristics of BHA, BHT, bit, etc.

As shown in FIG. 19, each of the example BHAs may include a rotary steerable system (RSS). For example, consider one of the POWERDRIVE ORBIT RSSs (SLB, Houston, Texas). As an example, an RSS may provide six-axis continuous survey and azimuth measurements that, together with automated downhole closed loops that include hold inclination and azimuth mode, aim to optimize outcomes for well placement, trajectory control, and smoother boreholes. As an example, an RSS may help to minimize dogleg severity in laterals and enhance consistency in drilling operations. As an example, an RSS may provide for extended gamma ray measurement (e.g., for identification of zones of interest, etc.).

As shown in example plots of torque versus speed, a framework may provide for adjusting cutting force to fit SDBT (see, e.g., the GUI 1600 of FIG. 16 and equation for torque). As explained with respect the GUI 1600, a framework may provide for formulating a function, which may account for one or more metrics that may be computed using a simulation framework for rock and interference (see, e.g., rock file and interference). In such an example, a metric may be a vertical force (F_V or fv), a cutting force (F_C or fc), a side force (F_S or fs), etc. As explained, TOB₀ may be the bit torque generated through simulation (e.g., in a speed independent manner) and R_T may be a decay ratio of bit torque; noting that torque may be a rotational analogue of linear force. As shown in the example plots of FIG. 19, one or more of different speeds and different decay ratios may apply for the different scenarios. As an example, a framework may provide for adjusting cutting force to fit SDBT with an impact to ROP.

As an example, results for one or more scenarios may be compared to field results. For example, consider drilling according to a BHT using a BHA where model results may be compared to actual results (e.g., via measurements, etc.). In such an example, one or more field operations may be controlled and/or one or more simulations modified via a framework.

FIG. 20 shows example plots 2000 for the three scenarios of FIG. 19, where the plots are of speed versus frequency for each of the three scenarios for SDBT, no adjustment, and speed dependent cutting force (SDCF) (e.g., fitted vertical force hardening (VFH)). In particular, the plots are fast Fourier transform (FFT) plots that illustrate frequency spectrums associated with speed (e.g., FFT of node velocity of bit). The plots 2000 provide for understanding sensitivity as to vertical force hardening via frequencies as to bit rpm. As an example, vibration may alter frequency. As an example, a fundamental frequency may exist. As explained, speed may be RPM with respect to one or more portions of a drillstring. For example, consider motor speed in RPM where bit speed may differ from motor speed due to one or more types of cutter-rock interactions.

As shown, for Scenario A, speed dependent vertical force hardening (SDCF) is similar as without the speed effect (none); for Scenario B, there is a marked change in the highest frequency with (SDCF) versus without (none); and, for Scenario C, there is a marked change in the highest frequency and an increase in magnitude with (SDCF) versus without (none).

As an example, a framework may provide for generation of results for one or more aspects of drilling. For example, consider generation of plots for individual force directions, WOB, ROP, torque, etc.

As an example, results may provide for cutting force speed effect analysis with and without a speed effect. For example, for Scenario A, a speed effect versus no speed effect analysis at a speed of 30 RPM demonstrated cutting force substantially the same while vertical force decreased, in that the closer to center of the bit, the smaller the vertical force; whereas, at a speed of 90 RPM, results demonstrated that, with the speed effect, vertical force of outer cutters increased while inner cutters decreased.

FIG. 21 shows example plots 2110 and 2120 for Scenario C of FIG. 19, without and with SDCF, respectively. The plots 2110 and 2120 show torque versus distance from bit, specifically range of torque variations during torsional resonance of the BHA. Without the SDCF (speed dependent cutting force) taken into account, the range of torque below the motor (e.g., between the motor and the bit) is much lower than with the SDCF taken into account. As shown, the plot 2110 ranges from −0.5 klbf-ft to 4.0 klbf-ft while the plot 2120 ranges from −10 klbf-ft to 15 klbf-ft. Such high ranges of torque as in the plot 2120 may pose risks to equipment. For example, a MWD unit may be at risk of failure with such high ranges of torque. As indicated, without an ability to account for SDCF, a scenario may be deemed acceptable or of low risk; whereas, by accounting for SDCF via a framework that may enhance simulation, such a scenario may be more appropriately characterized. In such an example, a scenario may be excluded, modified, implemented with appropriate controls, etc. As an example, a scenario may be controlled according to an expected range of torque per an enhanced simulation.

FIG. 22 shows an example of a method 2200 that includes an execution block 2210 for executing a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; an access block 2220 for, during the executing, accessing a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and an output block 2230 for outputting the simulation results.

FIG. 22 also shows various computer-readable media (CRM) blocks 2211, 2221, and 2231. Such blocks may include instructions that are executable by one or more processors, which may be one or more processors of a computational framework, a system, a computer, etc. A computer-readable medium may be a computer-readable storage medium that is not a signal, not a carrier wave and that is non-transitory. For example, a computer-readable medium may be a physical memory component that may store information in a digital format.

In the example of FIG. 22, a system 2290 includes one or more information storage devices 2291, one or more computers 2292, one or more networks 2295 and instructions 2296. As to the one or more computers 2292, each computer may include one or more processors (e.g., or processing cores) 2293 and a memory 2294 for storing the instructions 2296, for example, executable by at least one of the one or more processors. As an example, a computer may include one or more network interfaces (e.g., wired or wireless), one or more graphics cards, a display interface (e.g., wired or wireless), etc. The system 2290 may be specially configured to perform one or more portions of the method 2200 of FIG. 22.

As an example, a system may employ one or more machine learning models. For example, consider one or more trained machine learning models that may provide for receiving sensor data and outputting one or more characterizations. In such an example, one or more trained machine learning models may provide for outputting one or more characteristics of rock, which may be physical characteristics, characteristics of a drill bit, which may be cutter characteristics, and characteristics of rock and cutter interaction.

As to types of machine learning models, consider one or more of a support vector machine (SVM) model, a k-nearest neighbors (KNN) model, an ensemble classifier model, a neural network (NN) model, etc. As an example, a machine learning model may be a deep learning model (e.g., deep Boltzmann machine, deep belief network, convolutional neural network, stacked auto-encoder, etc.), an ensemble model (e.g., random forest, gradient boosting machine, bootstrapped aggregation, AdaBoost, stacked generalization, gradient boosted regression tree, etc.), a neural network model (e.g., radial basis function network, perceptron, back-propagation, Hopfield network, etc.), a regularization model (e.g., ridge regression, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator, elastic net, least angle regression), a rule system model (e.g., cubist, one rule, zero rule, repeated incremental pruning to produce error reduction), a regression model (e.g., linear regression, ordinary least squares regression, stepwise regression, multivariate adaptive regression splines, locally estimated scatterplot smoothing, logistic regression, etc.), a Bayesian model (e.g., naïve Bayes, average on-dependence estimators, Bayesian belief network, Gaussian naïve Bayes, multinomial naïve Bayes, Bayesian network), a decision tree model (e.g., classification and regression tree, iterative dichotomiser 3, C4.5, C5.0, chi-squared automatic interaction detection, decision stump, conditional decision tree, M5), a dimensionality reduction model (e.g., principal component analysis, partial least squares regression, Sammon mapping, multidimensional scaling, projection pursuit, principal component regression, partial least squares discriminant analysis, mixture discriminant analysis, quadratic discriminant analysis, regularized discriminant analysis, flexible discriminant analysis, linear discriminant analysis, etc.), an instance model (e.g., k-nearest neighbor, learning vector quantization, self-organizing map, locally weighted learning, etc.), a clustering model (e.g., k-means, k-medians, expectation maximization, hierarchical clustering, etc.), etc.

As an example, a machine model, which may be a machine learning model (ML model), may be built using a computational framework with a library, a toolbox, etc., such as, for example, those of the MATLAB framework (MathWorks, Inc., Natick, Massachusetts). The MATLAB framework includes a toolbox that provides supervised and unsupervised machine learning algorithms, including support vector machines (SVMs), boosted and bagged decision trees, k-nearest neighbor (KNN), k-means, k-medoids, hierarchical clustering, Gaussian mixture models, and hidden Markov models. Another MATLAB framework toolbox is the Deep Learning Toolbox (DLT), which provides a framework for designing and implementing deep neural networks with algorithms, pretrained models, and apps. The DLT provides convolutional neural networks (ConvNets, CNNs) and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks to perform classification and regression on image, time-series, and text data. The DLT includes features to build network architectures such as generative adversarial networks (GANs) and Siamese networks using custom training loops, shared weights, and automatic differentiation. The DLT provides for model exchange various other frameworks.

As an example, the TENSORFLOW framework (Google LLC, Mountain View, CA) may be implemented, which is an open-source software library for dataflow programming that includes a symbolic math library, which may be implemented for machine learning applications that may include neural networks. As an example, the CAFFE framework may be implemented, which is a DL framework developed by Berkeley AI Research (BAIR) (University of California, Berkeley, California). As another example, consider the SCIKIT platform (e.g., scikit-learn), which utilizes the PYTHON programming language. As an example, a framework such as the APOLLO AI framework may be utilized (APOLLO. AI GmbH, Germany). As an example, a framework such as the PYTORCH framework may be utilized (Facebook AI Research Lab (FAIR), Facebook, Inc., Menlo Park, California).

As an example, a training method may include various actions that may operate on a dataset to train a ML model. As an example, a dataset may be split into training data and test data where test data may provide for evaluation. A method may include cross-validation of parameters and best parameters, which may be provided for model training.

The TENSORFLOW framework may run on multiple CPUs and GPUs (with optional CUDA (NVIDIA Corp., Santa Clara, California) and SYCL (The Khronos Group Inc., Beaverton, Oregon) extensions for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units (GPUs)). TENSORFLOW is available on 64-bit LINUX, MACOS (Apple Inc., Cupertino, California), WINDOWS (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, Washington), and mobile computing platforms including ANDROID (Google LLC, Mountain View, California) and IOS (Apple Inc.) operating system-based platforms.

TENSORFLOW computations may be expressed as stateful dataflow graphs; noting that the name TENSORFLOW derives from the operations that such neural networks perform on multidimensional data arrays. Such arrays may be referred to as “tensors”.

As an example, a device may utilize TENSORFLOW LITE (TFL) or another type of lightweight framework. TFL is a set of tools that enables on-device machine learning where models may run on mobile, embedded, and IoT devices. TFL is optimized for on-device machine learning, by addressing latency (no round-trip to a server), privacy (no personal data leaves the device), connectivity (Internet connectivity is demanded), size (reduced model and binary size) and power consumption (e.g., efficient inference and a lack of network connections). TFL includes multiple platform support, covering ANDROID and iOS devices, embedded LINUX, and microcontrollers and diverse language support, which includes JAVA, SWIFT, Objective-C, C++, and PYTHON. TFL provides for high performance, with hardware acceleration and model optimization.

As an example, a method may include executing a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; during the executing, accessing a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and outputting the simulation results.

In such an example, accessing may include issuing a call from the simulator to the framework. And, for example, such a method may include issuing a response to the call, where the response modifies at least one variable of the model.

As an example, a framework may supplement a model via a rock transformer component. In such an example, the rock transformer component may include a data structure for modification of at least one variable of the model. As an example, a data structure may be or include one or more of a data list, a function, and a subroutine executable by an executing simulator (e.g., a simulator framework, etc.).

As an example, a framework may supplement a model by modifying a force as being dependent on velocity of a drill bit cutter. In such an example, the force may be a force computed by a simulator that is modified by multiplying the force by a velocity dependent function to generate a modified force. In such an example, the velocity dependent function may account for velocity dependent hardening. As explained, as an example, a velocity may be a speed.

As an example, a framework may supplement a model by modifying a force as being dependent on an interaction area between a drill bit cutter and rock.

As an example, a framework may supplement a model to generate simulation results as being indicative of chipping of rock. In such an example, the simulation results may be indicative of chip size from chipping of the rock. In such an example, the framework may supplement the model based at least in part on correlation between chipping events defined by decreases in cutting force and an increase in removed rock.

As an example, a framework may supplement a model to account for one or more of a rock chipping effect, a cutting speed effect, a cutter-rock interaction area shape effect, and a cutter shape and orientation effect.

As an example, a method may include controlling a drilling operation based at least in part on simulation results. In such an example, control may be provided by including one or more pieces of equipment for inclusion in a drillstring and/or at surface. For example, if torque is indicated to be high per simulation results, one or more torque sensors may be included with a drillstring where the one or more torque sensors may be appropriately configured to be able to measure torque values within an expected torque range. As an example, a method may include controlling where controlling may include adjusting rotational speed of a drill bit in a borehole.

As an example, a system may include a processor; a memory accessible by the processor; and processor-executable instructions stored in the memory that are executable to instruct the system to: execute a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; during execution of the simulator, access a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and output the simulation results.

As an example, one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media may include computer-executable instructions executable to instruct a computer to: execute a simulator that simulates drilling of rock by a drill bit using a model to generate simulation results; during execution of the simulator, access a framework that supplements the model to account for a drill bit cutter interaction with the rock; and output the simulation results.

As an example, a method may be implemented in part using computer-readable media (CRM), for example, as a module, a block, etc. that include information such as instructions suitable for execution by one or more processors (or processor cores) to instruct a computing device or system to perform one or more actions. As an example, a single medium may be configured with instructions to allow for, at least in part, performance of various actions of a method. As an example, a computer-readable medium (CRM) may be a computer-readable storage medium (e.g., a non-transitory medium) that is not a carrier wave. As an example, a computer-program product may include instructions suitable for execution by one or more processors (or processor cores) where the instructions may be executed to implement at least a portion of a method or methods.

According to an embodiment, one or more computer-readable media may include computer-executable instructions to instruct a computing system to output information for controlling a process. For example, such instructions may provide for output to sensing process, an injection process, drilling process, an extraction process, an extrusion process, a pumping process, a heating process, a design process, etc.

In some embodiments, a method or methods may be executed by a computing system. FIG. 23 shows an example of a system 2300 that may include one or more computing systems 2301-1, 2301-2, 2301-3 and 2301-4, which may be operatively coupled via one or more networks 2309, which may include wired and/or wireless networks.

As an example, a system may include an individual computer system or an arrangement of distributed computer systems. In the example of FIG. 23, the computer system 2301-1 may include one or more modules 2302, which may be or include processor-executable instructions, for example, executable to perform various tasks (e.g., receiving information, requesting information, processing information, simulation, outputting information, etc.).

As an example, a module may be executed independently, or in coordination with, one or more processors 2304, which is (or are) operatively coupled to one or more storage media 2306 (e.g., via wire, wirelessly, etc.). As an example, one or more of the one or more processors 2304 may be operatively coupled to at least one of one or more network interface 2307. In such an example, the computer system 2301-1 may transmit and/or receive information, for example, via the one or more networks 2309 (e.g., consider one or more of the Internet, a private network, a cellular network, a satellite network, etc.). As shown, one or more other components 2308 may be included in the computer system 2301-1.

As an example, the computer system 2301-1 may receive from and/or transmit information to one or more other devices, which may be or include, for example, one or more of the computer systems 2301-2, etc. A device may be located in a physical location that differs from that of the computer system 2301-1. As an example, a location may be, for example, a processing facility location, a data center location (e.g., server farm, etc.), a rig location, a wellsite location, a downhole location, etc.

As an example, a processor may be or include a microprocessor, microcontroller, processor module or subsystem, programmable integrated circuit, programmable gate array, or another control or computing device.

As an example, the storage media 2306 may be implemented as one or more computer-readable or machine-readable storage media. As an example, storage may be distributed within and/or across multiple internal and/or external enclosures of a computing system and/or additional computing systems.

As an example, a storage medium or storage media may include one or more different forms of memory including semiconductor memory devices such as dynamic or static random access memories (DRAMs or SRAMs), erasable and programmable read-only memories (EPROMs), electrically erasable and programmable read-only memories (EEPROMs) and flash memories, magnetic disks such as fixed, floppy and removable disks, other magnetic media including tape, optical media such as compact disks (CDs) or digital video disks (DVDs), BLUERAY disks, or other types of optical storage, or other types of storage devices.

As an example, a storage medium or media may be located in a machine running machine-readable instructions, or located at a remote site from which machine-readable instructions may be downloaded over a network for execution.

As an example, various components of a system such as, for example, a computer system, may be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both hardware and software (e.g., including firmware), including one or more signal processing and/or application specific integrated circuits.

As an example, a system may include a processing apparatus that may be or include a general-purpose processors or application specific chips (e.g., or chipsets), such as ASICs, FPGAs, PLDs, or other appropriate devices.

As an example, a device may be a mobile device that includes one or more network interfaces for communication of information. For example, a mobile device may include a wireless network interface (e.g., operable via IEEE 802.11, ETSI GSM, BLUETOOTH, satellite, etc.). As an example, a mobile device may include components such as a main processor, memory, a display, display graphics circuitry (e.g., optionally including touch and gesture circuitry), a SIM slot, audio/video circuitry, motion processing circuitry (e.g., accelerometer, gyroscope), wireless LAN circuitry, smart card circuitry, transmitter circuitry, GPS circuitry, and a battery. As an example, a mobile device may be configured as a cell phone, a tablet, etc. As an example, a method may be implemented (e.g., wholly or in part) using a mobile device. As an example, a system may include one or more mobile devices.

As an example, a system may be a distributed environment, for example, a so-called “cloud” environment where various devices, components, etc. interact for purposes of data storage, communications, computing, etc. As an example, a device or a system may include one or more components for communication of information via one or more of the Internet (e.g., where communication occurs via one or more Internet protocols), a cellular network, a satellite network, etc. As an example, a method may be implemented in a distributed environment (e.g., wholly or in part as a cloud-based service).

As an example, information may be input from a display (e.g., consider a touchscreen), output to a display or both. As an example, information may be output to a projector, a laser device, a printer, etc. such that the information may be viewed. As an example, information may be output stereographically or holographically. As to a printer, consider a 2D or a 3D printer. As an example, a 3D printer may include one or more substances that may be output to construct a 3D object. For example, data may be provided to a 3D printer to construct a 3D representation of a subterranean formation. As an example, layers may be constructed in 3D (e.g., horizons, etc.), geobodies constructed in 3D, etc. As an example, holes, fractures, etc., may be constructed in 3D (e.g., as positive structures, as negative structures, etc.).

Although only a few examples have been described in detail above, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many modifications are possible in the examples. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of this disclosure as defined in the following claims. In the claims, means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described herein as performing the recited function and not only structural equivalents, but also equivalent structures. Thus, although a nail and a screw may not be structural equivalents in that a nail employs a cylindrical surface to secure wooden parts together, whereas a screw employs a helical surface, in the environment of fastening wooden parts, a nail and a screw may be equivalent structures.